The Economics of Lithium, 10th edition 2006

Table of Contents

1. Summary

2. Introduction, reserves, mining and processing of lithium

• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Occurrence and reserves of lithium
• 2.3 Extraction and processing of lithium brines
• 2.4 Mining and processing of lithium minerals
• 2.5 Hectorite deposits

3. World production of lithium

• 3.1 World production of primary lithium
• 3.2 Lithium chemicals
• 3.3 World production of lithium chemicals

4. Review of lithium producing countries

• 4.1 Afghanistan
• 4.2 Argentina
  • 4.2.1 Minera del Altiplano SA
  • 4.2.2 Admiralty Resources NL
• 4.3 Australia
  • 4.3.1 Sons of Gwalia Ltd
    • 4.3.1.1 Reserves of lithium
    • 4.3.1.2 Production of lithium
    • 4.3.1.3 Specifications for spodumene
• 4.4 Austria
• 4.5 Belgium
• 4.6 Bolivia
• 4.7 Brazil
  • 4.7.1 Reserves of lithium in Brazil
  • 4.7.2 Production of lithium in Brazil
    • 4.7.2.1 Arqueana de Minerios e Metais Ltda
    • 4.7.2.2 Cia Brasileira do Litio (CBL)
• 4.8 Canada
  • 4.8.1 Producers of lithium in Canada
    • 4.8.1.1 TANCO
    • 4.8.1.2 Limtech Lithium Industries
    • 4.8.1.3 ToxCo Canada
  • 4.8.2 Potential producers of lithium in Canada
    • 4.8.2.1 Angus & Ross
    • 4.8.2.2 Avalon Ventures Ltd
    • 4.8.2.3 Emerald Fields Resource Corp
    • 4.8.2.4 Raymor Industries Inc
    • 4.8.2.5 Other potential deposits
• 4.9 Chile
  • 4.9.1 Reserves of lithium in Chile
  • 4.9.2 Production of lithium in Chile
    • 4.9.2.1 SCL
    • 4.9.2.2 SQM
  • 4.9.3 Exports of lithium from Chile
• 4.10 China
  • 4.10.1 Reserves of lithium in China
  • 4.10.2 Supply of lithium in China
  • 4.10.3 Producers of lithium minerals in China
  • 4.10.4 Potential producers of lithium minerals in China
  • 4.10.5 Producers of lithium carbonate from brines in China
  • 4.10.6 Producers of lithium chemicals in China
  • 4.10.7 Producers of lithium metal in China
• 4.11 Democratic Republic of Congo
• 4.12 Finland
• 4.13 France
• 4.14 Germany
• 4.14.1 Chemetall GmbH
• 4.15 India
• 4.16 Ireland
• 4.17 Israel
• 4.18 Japan
• 4.19 South Korea
• 4.20 Mali
• 4.21 Morocco
• 4.22 Mozambique
• 4.23 Namibia
• 4.24 Netherlands
• 4.25 New Zealand
• 4.26 Portugal
• 4.27 Russia
  • 4.27.1 Reserves of lithium in Russia
  • 4.27.2 Production of lithium in Russia
  • 4.27.3 Past production of lithium in Russia
• 4.28 South Africa
• 4.29 Spain
• 4.30 Taiwan
• 4.31 Tajikistan
• 4.32 UK
• 4.33 Ukraine
• 4.34 USA
  • 4.34.1 Imports of lithium into the USA
  • 4.34.2 Producers of lithium in the USA
    • 4.34.2.1 Chemetall Foote Corporation
    • 4.34.2.2 FMC Lithium
    • 4.34.2.3 SQM
    • 4.34.2.4 ToxCo Inc
    • 4.34.2.5 Tronox Inc
• 4.35 Uzbekistan
• 4.36 Zimbabwe
  • 4.36.1 Bikita Minerals (Pvt) Ltd

5. International trade in lithium

• 5.1 Trade in lithium carbonate
• 5.2 Trade in lithium oxide and hydroxide

6. World consumption of lithium

• 6.1 Consumption of lithium by end-use
• 6.2 Outlook for consumption of lithium

7. End-uses for lithium

• 7.1 Use of lithium in batteries
  • 7.1.1 Types of batteries
  • 7.1.2 Lithium primary batteries
    • 7.1.2.1 Trends in demand for lithium in primary batteries
  • 7.1.3 Lithium secondary batteries
    • 7.1.3.1 Types of lithium secondary batteries
    • 7.1.3.2 Production of lithium secondary batteries
    • 7.1.3.3 Markets for lithium secondary batteries
    • 7.1.3.4 Trends in demand for lithium in secondary batteries
• 7.2 Use of lithium in glass and ceramics
  • 7.2.1 Action of lithia in glass and ceramics
  • 7.2.2 Forms of lithia used in glass and ceramics
  • 7.2.3 Production of glass
  • 7.2.4 Use of lithia in glazes and enamels
  • 7.2.5 Trends in demand for lithium in glass and ceramics
• 7.3 Use of lithium in lubricating grease
  • 7.3.1 Types of lubricating grease
  • 7.3.2 Production of lubricating grease
  • 7.3.3 Trends in demand for lithium in lubricating grease
• 7.4 Use of lithium in gas and air treatment
  • 7.4.1 Absorption chillers
  • 7.4.2 Dehumidification
• 7.5 Use of lithium in aluminium smelting
  • 7.5.1 Aluminium smelting
  • 7.5.2 Production of aluminium
  • 7.5.3 Trends in demand for lithium in aluminium smelting
• 7.6 Use of lithium in synthetic rubber and plastics
  • 7.6.1 Types of synthetic rubber
  • 7.6.2 Production of synthetic rubber
  • 7.6.3 Trends in demand for lithium in synthetic rubber production
• 7.7 Use of lithium in pharmaceuticals
  • 7.7.1 Treatment of bipolar disorder
  • 7.7.2 Other medical treatment
• 7.8 Use of lithium in aluminium alloys
  • 7.8.1 Types of aluminium-lithium alloys
  • 7.8.2 Markets for aluminium-lithium alloys
• 7.9 Use of lithium in construction
• 7.10 Use of lithium in organic chemistry
• 7.11 Use of lithium niobate
  • 7.11.1 Production of lithium niobate
  • 7.11.2 Applications for lithium niobate
    • 7.11.2.1 Surface acoustic wave devices
    • 7.11.2.2 Integrated optics
• 7.12 Minor end-uses for lithium
  • 7.12.1 Analytical agents
  • 7.12.2 Battery electrolytes
  • 7.12.3 Dyestuffs
  • 7.12.4 Fuel cells
  • 7.12.5 Metallurgy
  • 7.12.6 Photographic industry
  • 7.12.7 Thermonuclear fusion
  • 7.12.8 Water sanitisers
  • 7.12.9 Welding fluxes
  • 7.12.10 Other speciality lithium inorganics

8. Prices of lithium

• 8.1 Prices of lithium minerals
• 8.2 Prices of lithium carbonate
• 8.3 Prices of lithium compounds and lithium metal

List of Tables

• Table 1: Properties of lithium
• Table 2: Conversion factors for lithium compounds
• Table 3: World: Lithium reserves by country, 2005
• Table 4: World: Lithium reserves by type, 2003
• Table 5: Average brine composition in selected salars
• Table 6: Specifications for lithium carbonate produced from SQM brines
• Table 7: Main lithium minerals
• Table 8: Composition of standard lithium concentrates
• Table 9: World: Production of primary lithium by country, 2000-2005
• Table 10: World: Production of primary lithium and brines by country, 1999-2005
• Table 11: World: Producers of brine-based lithium carbonate and chloride, 2005
• Table 12: World: Producers of lithium minerals, 2005
• Table 13: World: Potential increases in production capacity for lithium minerals and lithium carbonate
• Table 14: Composition of high-grade lithium carbonate
• Table 15: Argentina: Production of lithium carbonate and lithium chloride, 2000-2005
• Table 16: Argentina: Trade in lithium carbonate, 2000-2005
• Table 17: Sons of Gwalia: Production and sales of spodumene minerals, FY 1995-2003
• Table 18: Sons of Gwalia: Production and sales of advanced minerals, mid-2003-mid 2004
• Table 19: Sons of Gwalia: Minerals Division assets and liabilities, 2001-2004
• Table 20: Sons of Gwalia: Specifications for spodumene concentrate SC4.8
• Table 21: Sons of Gwalia: Typical specifications for spodumene concentrates
• Table 22: Austria: Imports of lithium carbonate by country of origin, 2000-2005
• Table 23: Belgium: Imports of lithium compounds, 2000-2005
• Table 24: Belgium: Exports of lithium compounds, 2000-2005
• Table 25: Brazil: Measured reserves of lithium minerals by type, 2004
• Table 26: Brazil: Production, trade and apparent consumption of lithium, 2000-2004
• Table 27: Canada: Trade in lithium chemicals, 2000-2005
• Table 28: TANCO: Specifications for spodumene concentrates
• Table 29: Avalon Ventures: Mineralogy of the Big Whopper resource
• Table 30: Avalon Ventures: Chemical composition of the Big Whopper resource
• Table 31: Chile: Production of lithium carbonate by company, 1995-2005
• Table 32: SQM: Specifications for lithium products
• Table 33: Chile: Exports of lithium carbonate by country of destination, 2001-2005
• Table 34: Chile: Exports of lithium carbonate by company, 1995-2005
• Table 35: China: Reserves of lithium minerals by province
• Table 36: China: Estimated production of lithium, 1998-2005
• Table 37: France: Trade in lithium compounds, 2000-2005
• Table 38: Germany: Imports of lithium carbonate by country of origin, 2000-2005
• Table 39: Chemetall: Lithium product range
• Table 40: India: Listed producers of lithium chemicals
• Table 41: Japan: Imports and consumption of lithium products, 2000-2005
• Table 42: Namibia: Production of lithium minerals, 1990-1998
• Table 43: Netherlands: Trade in lithium compounds, 2000-2005
• Table 44: Portugal: Production of lepidolite, 1996-2005
• Table 45: Portugal: Chemical composition of sills in Goncalco deposit
• Table 46: Russia: Deposits of lithium
• Table 47: Russia: Imports of lithium carbonate by country of origin, 2000-2005
• Table 48: Russia: Production of lithium concentrates, 1992-1998
• Table 49: Spain: Production of lepidolite, 1996-2005
• Table 50: Spain: Trade in lithium carbonate, 2000-2005
• Table 51: UK: Trade in lithium compounds, 2000-2005
• Table 52: USA: Market for lithium, 2000-2005
• Table 53: USA: Trade in lithium compounds, 2000-2005
• Table 54: FMC Lithium: Product range
• Table 55: Zimbabwe: Production of lithium minerals, 1996-2005
• Table 56: World: Leading exporters of lithium carbonate, 2001-2005
• Table 57: World: Leading importers of lithium carbonate, 2001-2005
• Table 58: World: Exports of lithium carbonate by leading exporting country, 2005
• Table 59: World: Imports of lithium carbonate by leading importing country, 2005
• Table 60: World: Leading exporters of lithium oxide and hydroxide, 2001-2005
• Table 61: World: Leading importers of lithium oxide and hydroxide, 2001-2005
• Table 62: World: Exports of lithium oxide and hydroxide by leading exporting country, 2005
• Table 63: World: Imports of lithium oxide and hydroxide by leading importing country, 2005
• Table 64: Brazil and the USA: Consumption of lithium, 2000-2005
• Table 65: Japan: Consumption of lithium chemicals, 2000-2005
• Table 66: World: Estimated consumption of lithium by end-use, 2005
• Table 67: Japan: Consumption of lithium carbonate and lithium metal by end-use, 2003-2005
• Table 68: World: Forecast consumption of lithium by end-use, 2005 and 2010
• Table 69: Comparison of main types of primary batteries
• Table 70: Typical properties of primary dry battery systems
• Table 71: Specifications for battery-grade lithium metal
• Table 72: Japan: Consumption of lithium metal in primary batteries, 2000-2005
• Table 73: Japan: Production of primary batteries by type, 1996-2005
• Table 74: USA: Forecast sales of lithium primary batteries, 2002-2009
• Table 75: Comparison of main types of secondary batteries
• Table 76: Typical properties of secondary battery systems
• Table 77: Properties of various lithium ion secondary battery chemistries
• Table 78: World: Production of lithium ion/polymer batteries, 1995-2005
• Table 79: Japan: Production of secondary batteries by type, 1995-2005
• Table 80: Average values of Japanese production of secondary batteries by type, 2000-2005
• Table 81: Specifications for lithium secondary batteries under development by GS Battery for HEVs/EVs
• Table 82: World: Forecast sales of HEVs, 2000-2011
• Table 83: USA: Forecast sales of lithium secondary batteries, 2002-2009
• Table 84: Typical batch compositions for glass by type
• Table 85: Forms of lithia used in glass
• Table 86: EU: Production of glass by type, 1996-2004
• Table 87: USA: Production of glass by type, 1996-2005
• Table 88: World: New flat glass production lines, 2004-2006
• Table 89: World: Display market by technology, 2002-2005
• Table 90: Typical chemical composition of types of textile-grade fibreglass
• Table 91: EU, Japan and the USA: Production of fibreglass, 1996-2004
• Table 92: World: Consumption of minerals in ceramic frits and glazes, 2003
• Table 93: Properties of commercial greases
• Table 94: UK: Production of grease by type, 2004
• Table 95: World: Production of lithium lubricating grease by area and type, 2001-2004
• Table 96: World: Producers of lubricating grease
• Table 97: World: Estimated consumption of lithium in lubricating grease by area, 2005
• Table 98: Japan: Consumption of lithium bromide, 1998-2005
• Table 99: Effects of additives and temperatures on properties of molten cryolite
• Table 100: World: Production of primary aluminium by leading country, 1998-2004
• Table 101: World: Production of primary aluminium by region, 2002-2006
• Table 102: World: Firm expansions in primary aluminium production capacity, 2005-2008
• Table 103: Properties of SE SLR-6430 produced by Dow using a lithium initiator
• Table 104: Microstructure of different types of polybutadienes
• Table 105: World: Production capacity for synthetic rubber by type and country, 2004
• Table 106: China: Production of synthetic rubber, 1996-2003
• Table 107: World: Production of synthetic rubber by region, 1996-2005
• Table 108: Physical properties of Al-Li alloys
• Table 109: Chemical composition of Al-Li alloys
• Table 110: Chemical composition of Alloy 2090
• Table 111: Lithium products for construction markets produced by FMC Lithium
• Table 112: Properties of lithium niobate and lithium tantalate
• Table 113: Selected properties of lithium niobate used in acoustic wave applications
• Table 114: Applications for SAW components
• Table 115: World: Forecast market for non-linear optical materials, 2003-2009
• Table 116: Applications for speciality inorganic lithium compounds
• Table 117: Prices of lithium minerals, 1995-2006
• Table 118: Average values of Chilean exports of lithium carbonate by company, 1995-2005
• Table 119: Average values of exports of lithium carbonate by leading exporting country, 2001-2005
• Table 120: Average values of exports of lithium oxides and hydroxides by leading exporting country, 2001-2005

List of Figures

• Figure 1: Overview of lithium production
• Figure 2: World: Reserves of lithium by country, 2005
• Figure 3: World: Production of primary lithium by leading producer, 2000-2005
• Figure 4: World: Production of primary lithium by type, 2005
• Figure 5: Sons of Gwalia: Greenbushes mine lithium process flowsheet
• Figure 6: Chile: Shipments of lithium carbonate, 1995-2005
• Figure 7: Russia: Reserves of lithium by region
• Figure 8: World: Leading exporters of lithium carbonate, 2005
• Figure 9: World: Leading importers of lithium carbonate, 2005
• Figure 10: World: Leading exporters of lithium oxide and hydroxide, 2005
• Figure 11: World: Leading importers of lithium oxide and hydroxide, 2005
• Figure 12: World: Estimated consumption of lithium by leading country, 2005
• Figure 13: World: Estimated consumption of lithium chemicals by type, 2002
• Figure 14: World: Estimated consumption of lithium by end-use, 2000 and 2005
• Figure 15: World: Sales of primary lithium batteries by type, 2003
• Figure 16: World: Sales of lithium ion batteries by company, 2003
• Figure 17: Average values of Japanese production of secondary batteries by type, 2000-2005
• Figure 18: World: Demand for float/sheet glass by area, 2004
• Figure 19: World: Flat glass production capacity by company, 2004
• Figure 20: World: Market for textile-grade fibreglass by region, 2002
• Figure 21: World: Production of lubricating grease by type, 2004
• Figure 22: World: Production of lithium lubricating grease by area and type, 2001 and 2004
• Figure 23: World: Production of primary aluminium by area, 1980 and 2004
• Figure 24: World: Sales of styrenic block copolymers by end-use, 2004
• Figure 25: World: Sales of styrenic block copolymers by region, 2004
• Figure 26: Average annual prices of lithium minerals, 1995-2006
• Figure 27: Average values of exports of lithium carbonate by leading exporter, 1997-2005